Skyscrapers

 Caroline Canning 

A skyscraper is a very tall building that is often used as a work space or a living space. The classification of a skyscraper is framed around the idea of a steel-frame, as apposed to load bearing masonry. For a long time the Home Insurance Building in Chicago was said to be the first skyscraper, although some people say that the Equitable Life Insurance Building in New York was the first skyscraper because part of the building had a metal frame.

The major cause of skyscrapers was the Chicago fire of 1871. It practically burnt the city to the ground, so they had to rebuild Chicago. The people of the town wanted their new city to be bigger and better than it was before the fire. They also wanted bigger buildings because it makes the rent more profitable. The Chicago River prevented the city from expanding north and west, Lake Michigan prevented the city from east, and many railroads, depots, freight yards, etc. blocked the city from expanding south. This meant that up with the only way the city could grow.

The soil caused many problems in Chicago. It was soft and marshy, which wasn't strong enough to hold a skyscraper. At this point, they still used masonry, and the walls were very thick and the bricks were very heavy. Architect William Le Baron Jenney found a solution. His idea was to use a metal frame (which is fireproof) instead of the masonry. The metal supported most of the weight, so there was less weight on the soil, and the height of the building was no longer a problem.

Elevators had a major on skyscrapers. Before Elevators the tallest buildings were about six stories tall, because people didn't want to walk up more than five flights of stairs. In the 1870's the @Otis Company made the hydraulic safety elevator. With the elevator, buildings above six floors now made sense, and skyscrapers became realistic.

There were many reasons people wanted to build skyscrapers. One reason was that there was limited space in cities with dense populations (especially Chicago and New York) and the cities wanted to use their space in the most efficient way possible. Another reason is that skyscrapers can bring a lot of people together. There is a lot of space in a skyscraper, and it can contain many tools that are need for a company. A Skyscraper is also a gathering location.

There was a lot of competition between Chicago and New York to see who could build the tallest building in the world. As the cities continued to battle for the title of tallest building in the world, other countries followed their example and started building their own skyscrapers.

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 * when || building || city || floors || status ||
 * 1870 || Equitable Life Assurance Building || New York || 8 || destroyed (rebuilt) ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">when || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">city || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">floors || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">status ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1885 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Home Insurance Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Chicago || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">10 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Demolished ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1889 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Auditorium Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Chicago || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">17 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1890 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York World Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">20 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Demolished ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1894 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Manhattan Life Insurance Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">18 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Demolished ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1899 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Park Row Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">30 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1901 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Philadelphia City Hall || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Philadelphia || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">9 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1908 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Singer Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">47 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Demolished ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1909 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Met Life Tower || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">50 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1913 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Woolworth Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">57 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1930 || 40 Wall Street || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">70 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1930 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Chrysler Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">77 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1931 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Empire State Building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">102 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1972 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">World Trade Center || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">New York City || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">110 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Destroyed ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">1974 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Willis Tower/Sears Tower || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Chicago || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">108 || Standing ||


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">when || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">building || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">city || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">country || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">floors || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">status ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">2004 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Taipei 101 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Taipei || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Taiwan || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">101 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Standing ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">2009 || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Burj Khalifa || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">Dubai || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">United Arab Emirates || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 121%;">160 || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Standing ||

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Publicity was a major part of skyscrapers. Skyscrapers were public icons that advertised the companies that owned them. People would come to see "landmark buildings," which is another way the companies became more known. There was a lot of competition between the companies to build the tallest building so that people would visit their skyscraper.

Although skyscrapers were a huge step in the advancement of this country, there were many social effects as well. It caused a lot of people to be in one <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;"> l <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 109.89%;">ocation, and it caused very little sense of neighborhood. The tall buildings cut off the sunlight and caused the streets to be very dark. It increased the traffic, which effected many of the transportation systems. It made a city seem very impersonal. It also made it seem crowded and massive.

There are two main parts of a skyscraper. The first part is the foundation, which is underground. Architect John Wellborn Root developed the foundation called floating raft. floating raft is a lot of cement containing a grid of steel, which is very strong. The second part is the superstructure, which is above the ground. The superstructure transmits the weight to the foundation, and together they support the load. The load is the force or weight of a building. In addition to the weight, there is also a wind load. The wind load is the force of the wind blowing on the building. Skyscrapers are made out of iron and steel. A lot of this steel was possible because of the founding of the Carnegie Steel Company, in 1873. These materials are a lot lighter and stronger than the masonry that was used, and this enabled Skyscrapers to be more than four or five stories. There are many things that support a skyscraper. The walls support small buildings, but that is NOT the case for skyscrapers. The major support is the steel or concrete frame. There are also beams, girders, and columns that support the building.

When skyscrapers were first being built, there were many dangers. Builders didn't have any safety standards, and there were many accidents. It was especially dangerous on windy days. Also, airflow within the building before everything was put in place was sometimes a problem. There were also dangers with the transportation within the building. This lead to the requirement of safe and reliable elevators. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;"> Skyscrapers contain five main systems. There are the service areas, the plumbing systems, the air conditioning systems, the electrical systems, and the elevators. The service areas include lobbies, stairs, corridors, and machine rooms. They also contain all of the other systems. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">The plumbing systems consist of a drainage system and a water supply.The air conditioning systems control the temperature in the Skyscrapers. The electrical systems provide electricity for for the communication systems, including telephones and computers. It also provides electricity for office equipment, lighting, and many other things that need electricity. This is a big part of skyscrapers, and skyscrapers wouldn't be able to function without electricity. Elevators travel very fast and usually cover a zone of fifteen to twenty floors. Overall, these systems are very important to the functioning of skyscrapers. 1. The builders have to dig a hole one to two stories deep for the foundation. 2. The materials to make the skyscraper have to be sent to the construction site. 3. The builders have to use a crane to to place the giant pieces where they belong. 4. The builders have to bolt the pieces together, and make sure everything is secure. 5. The builders have to build the floors and outside walls. 6. The appliances and the rest of the furnishings have to go into the building. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;"> As buildings continued to get taller, people began to think that there should be restrictions to how tall a building can be. At the beginning, zoning restrictions were height limits. This lead to the zoning law of 1916. In New York, the law stated that "no building shall be erected in excess of twice the width of the street, but for each one foot that the building or a portion of it sets back from the street line, four feet shall be added to the height limit"(ABC-CLIO). This is saying that no building will be taller than twice the width of the street unless they make it further away from the street, which allowed them to make the building taller. This law forced architects to design buildings with a zig-zag profile, because it created more space. After World War II, a lot of big cities started to pass new zoning laws. The laws allowed architects to build higher if they helped the city in some way. Some examples of how they could help, was to put in a subway entrance in their building, or create a public passage way. This lead to the idea of air rights. People started to buy the "columns of air" above the building next to them so they can protect their views.
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">//Lots of planning goes into the building of a skyscraper://
 * It can take years to complete a skyscraper. ||

A notable skyscraper in our history is the Empire State Building. It is 102 stories tall. One thing that is particularly outstanding, is that there were about 3,500 workers and they built the skyscraper in a little over a year. That meant that their average was about five and a half stories a week. The empire State Building is still the tallest building in New York, and i <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">t is a landmark that people continue to visit.

The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center are also very important to our history. The tallest of the two was 110 stories. They were the tallest in New York, and the second tallest in the country. The complex included seven buildings, 1,000,000 square feet for offices, an elevated plaza, retail concourse, 250 elevators, and a hotel with 820 rooms. The daily population was 50,000 employees and 100,000 visitors. There were many conflicts with the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center. The size and height created many debates. In addition, people were worried about the effects on the rental markets. Businesses had to be relocated when the complex was built, and broadcasters said that the towers caused television interference. Then of course there was the conflict of 9/11. On September 11, 2001 the Twin Towers were destroyed by terrorists.

More and more countries followed the trend that Chicago set, and began building skyscrapers too. Now, all around the world there are skyscrapers to represent what America started so long ago.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;">** Causes: **



<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;">
 * Effects: **

__Bibliography:__

May 2010. <http://www.worldbookonline.com/student/ article?id=ar513760&st=Skyscrapers>. Manchester University press, 1999. Web. 18 May 2010. <http://www.americanhistory.abc-clio.com/Search/ imple&option=all&searchsites=4,>. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscrapers>. Web. 20 May 2010. <http://www.cobblestoneonline.net/ display_article.asp>. Textbook
 * online databases:**
 * Dettman, Matthew A. "Skyscraper." //World Book Student//. World Book, 2010. Web. 20
 * Gelernter, Mark. "Skyscrapers." //http://www.americanhistory.abc-clio.com//.
 * Display.aspx?categoryid=25&entryid=392664&searchtext=growth+of+skyscrapers&type=s
 * "Skyscraper." //Wikipedia//. N.p., 22 May 2010. Web. 24 May 2010.
 * Walston, Mark. "Chicago Builds to the Sky." //CobblestoneOnline.net//. N.p., n.d.
 * books:**
 * Viola, Herman J. //Why We Remember//. Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print. My
 * pictures/videos:**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">http://anastasiamariephotography.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/ChicagoSkyline.jpg
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">http://explorepahistory.com/images/ExplorePAHistory-a0j4b4-a_349.jpg
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">http://riva2010.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/otis-patent.jpg
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_OvonoKii_ds/RmZRyvkjCEI/AAAAAAAAAYg/IDSD7PP8Fu4/s320/jenney.jpg
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/george/elevation/jenney01.GIF
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">www.youtube.com
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">ABC-CLIO